Tibet after the Revolution of 1911

2004-09-21 09:57

I. The Consistent Stand Taken by the Successive Chinese Central Governments
towards the Sovereignty over Tibet after the Revolution of 1911

The Republic of China was founded in 1911 when the rule of the Qing Dynasty was overthrown by the Revolution of 1911. Though the
domestic political situation of China was not quite stable at that time, yet the successive central governments of China all persisted
in the principled stand of exercising sovereign jurisdiction over Tibet. They conducted resolute struggles against the schemes of
splitting China by the foreign aggressive forces and adopted various measures of exercising sovereign jurisdiction over Tibet.

1 . Reiteration of Sovereignty over Tibet by the Government of the Republic of China

At the beginning of the founding of the Republic of China, it promptly declared that the Republic was the integration of the Han,Manchu,
Mongolian, Hui and Tibetan nationalities Dr. Sun
Yat-sen, Provisional President of the Republic, pointed out in his
Declaration in January 1912: "The foundation of the state lies in
the people's power to incorporate the areas inhabited by the Hans,
Manchus, Mongolians, Huis and Tibetans into one country and to unite
the Han, Manchu, Mongolian, Hui and Tibetan nationalities into one
nation. That is called the national unification." He also made
succinct explanations to the declaring of independence by more than
ten provinces after Wuchang took the lead to revolt, saying that
"This 'independence' meant exclusion of the Qing court through
alliance with other provinces This also applies to Mongolia and
Tibet. The unification of territory meant the concerted actions of
all the nationalities and provinces , not going astray under the
leadership of the center and extended its rule to the four
boundaries." He stressed that the independence of various provious
did not mean by independent kingdom, but meant by exclusion of the
Qing court through alliance with other provinces. He made special
statement regarding Tibet and Mongolia . The five-colour flag used
then as the national flag symbolized the integral whole of the five
nationalities.

On March 11 , 1912 the Provisional Constitution of the Republic of
China issued by the Nanjing Interim Government stipulated that "The
territory of the Republic of China consists of twenty-two provinces,
Inner and Outer Mongolia, Tibet and Qinghai." Senators will be
selected from every province, Inner and Outer Mongolia, and Tibet,
each five persons; one from Qinghai. The method of selection will be
decided by the various regions . When the Senate is in session,
one-senator-one-vote will be carried out." The above-mentioned facts
clearly pointed out that Tibet and other regions are part of the
Chinese territory ; their status are equal to other provinces. They
have the right to participate in the administration of state
affairs.

On April 22, 1912 the Order of President Yuan Shikai emphasized that
"The Republic is composed of five nationalities. All Mongolian,
Tibetan and Huijiang areas are the territory of the Republic; the
Mongolians, Tibetans and the Huis in Xinjiang are all the nationals
of the Republic. The designations used in the period of the Empire
should not be continued. Henceforth, overall planning should be
carried out regarding Mongolian, Tibetan and Huijiang regions in
order to achieve the domestic unification and realize the great
harmony of all nationalities. The Government of the Republic will
not set up special organ to handle national minodties affairs. The
reason is that Mongolian, Tibetan and Huijiang regions are placed on
equal footing with the interior provinces. All political affairs in
those regions should fall within the limits of interior
administration, We have now founded the unified government. The
national minorities affairs will be merged into and taken over by
the Ministry of Interior Affairs......"

The Constitution of the Republic of China was issued in May 1914. It
reiterated once again that "The territory of the Republic of China
will comply with all the territory of the former Empire." "The
nationals of the Republic of China will be equal before the law
regardless of their races classes or religions."

In 1928 the Nationalist Government was established in Nanjing.On
September 23, 1929 Chiang Kai-shek sent letters to the Dalai Lama
and the Kalons respectively and expressed attitude of the central
government towards Tibet. It was pointed out in the letter to the
Kalons that "On the behest of Dr. Sun Yat-sen, the Government will
treat equally without discrimination against Tibet. Though U-Tsang
is located far away, its land belongs to the territory of the
Republic of China and its people belong to the nationals of the
Republic of China. The Government will spare no efforts to foster
the basis of regional autonomy in order to struggle for survival in
the world."

On June 1, 1931 the Nationalist Government issued the Provisional
Constitution in the Political Tutelage Period of the Republic of
China, in which it stipulated that "The territory of the Republic of
China covers the various provinces, Mongolia and Tibet." "The local
systems of Mongolia and Tibet shall be enacted separately in legal
forms according to the local conditions." Afterwards, the
Constitution of the Republic of China, made public in 1947 pointed
out once again that "The territory of the Republic of China shall
comply with its inherent domains. No changes of territory shall be
made without the resolutions adopted by the National Assembly." The
autonomous system of Tibet should be guaranteed." There was also
clear statement concerning the National Assembly that "The number of
delegates to be elected from Tibet shall be decided according to
law." It was also stipulated that there should also include the
number of delegates from the Tibet regien among the legislators and
controllers of the country.

The above-mentioned facts show that after the Revolution of 1911
,the successive central governments of China all solemnly pointed
out: Tibet is part of Chinese territory and it was stipulated by
law.

2. The Government of the Republic Resolutely opposed the Conspiracy
of Separating Tibet from China by Foreign Aggressive Forces

In the early stage of the founding of the Republic, the political
situation of China was turbulent. The political regimes alternated
continuously. Taking advantage of this chaotic situation of China,
the British imperialists plotted to grab Tibet and separate it from
China. In 1914 Britain hatched single-handedly the Simla Conference,
concocted "the Simla Convention", openly divided our Tibetan areas
into " Inner Tibet" and "Outer Tibet" and tampered with China's
sovereignty over Tibet into "suzerainty". This "convention" which
gravely violated the sovereignty of China should naturally be
opposed by the Chinese Government. On July 3, 1914 Ivan Chen, the
chief delegate of the Chinese government, was instructed to refuse
to affix his signature on the formal text of the "Simla Convention"
and stated that "The Chinese Government would not recognize any
agreement or similar documents between Britain and Tibet today or
some other day." The British scheme hence failed.

After the Simla Conference, the British imperialists were not
reconciled to their failure, and continued to play with conspiracies
and provoked incidents so as to attain their designs.

In July 1942, the Kashag (Tibetan local government) declared all of
a sudden the establishment of a "bureau of foreign affairs" and
threatened to cut off supplies to the Office of the Commission for
Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs at Lhasa and forced the Office to have
contacts with the so-called "bureau of foreign affairs" in an
attempt to find an excuse for independence of Tibet. Mr. Kong
Qingzong, the then director of the Office, promptly sent an urgent
report to the central government and pointed out in the telegram
that "The bureau of foreign affairs is by nature an organ that takes
up matters with foreign countries. Today the Kashag informed me that
I should take up all matters with the bureau. That amounts to
treating the central government as a foreign government and Tibet as
an independent country. If we were to recognize so, that would mean
the disappearance of articles in the previous international treaties
which stipulate Tibet is part of the Chinese territory. That would
also mean the invisible validity of the various treaties, open or
secret, signed by Tibet with foreign countries without the
recognition of the central government of China, As this is a matter
of great importance, we suggest that the central government should
openly cable the Kashag that we do not recognize the bureau. The
officials of the central government in Tibet should deal with all
matters with the Kashag as usual." On August 5, 1942 the Commission
for Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs conveyed the instruction of the
Executive Yuan to the Kashag, saying that" The Tibetan side found it
necessary to set up an organ to handle local foreign affairs but
they must observe the following rules:a) Problems involving the
interests of the state, that is, political problems, must be handled
in accordance with the will of the central government;b) All
contacts and communication between the central authorities and Tibet
should follow the usual practice and must not go through the
above-mentioned bureau of foreign affairs." The Office of the
Commission for Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs at Lhasa received a
telegram, ordering that "The Office should take up all matters with
the Kashag as usual, not have any connection with the "bureau of
foreign affairs" . In 1943 the Tibetan Tsongdu (National Assembly)
was held at Lhasa. The Tsongdu accepted the opinion of the Central
Government concerning the matter of the 'bureau of foreign affairs'
and withdrew the former decision, expressing that "Tibet should keep
good feeling with the Central Government and should not sever
relations with the Office of the central authorities in Tibet."
Ngawang Gyaltsen, general representative of the Tibet Office in
Nanjing (then moved to Chongqing), was instructed to convey this
views to the President of the Nationalist Government personally.
Owing to the solemn and just stand taken by the Chinese Central
Government, the British imperialists' scheme for the independence of
Tibet by taking advantage of establishing the "bureau of foreign
affairs" went bankrupt.

The incidents of "Pan-Asian Conference" and "Trade Mission"were
cooked up by the Kashag under the British instigation in 1947. The
Central Government expressed its stern stand through various
channels and resolutely opposed to them.

II. The Attitude of the Tibet Region towards the Central Government
of China after the Revolution of 1911.

The Dalai Lama and the Panchen Erdeni are the two most int bestial
Grand Living Buddhas in Tibet and also the political and religious
leaders. They control the political and religious power of Tibet. It
is therefore very important to understand the attitude of the Dalai
Lama and the Panchen Erdeni towards the relations the Tibet region
and the central government.

1 . The Thirteenth Dalai Lama's Attitude towards the Central
Government of China

The thirteenth Dalai Lama extremely hated the British and other
foreign aggressive forces which meddled actively in Tibetan affairs
by taking advantage of the declining situation of the late Qing
political power. He called on the Tibetan people to rise and hit
back the British invasion in 1904. Afterwards, the Dalai Lama
wavered for a time due to the error of the Qing's Amban in Tibet and
the combined threats with inducements by the British. He made some
remarks in contravention to the historical facts.

In 1919 the Central Government of the Republic sent special envoys
Zhu Xiu and Li Zhonglian to Tibet. They met the Dalai Lama and the
Panchen Erdeni, explained the policy towards Tibet by the Central
Government of the Republic, removed previous ill will and doubts,
and mediated between the parties. Through work they made the Tibetan
upper-class personages know the truth, cleared their doubts and
misgivings, thereby enabling the Dalai Lama's attitude towards the
central authorities transformed a great deal, Before leaving Lhasa
Li Zhonglian and Zhu Xiu were given a farewell banquet in their
honor by the Dalai Lama. The Dalai Lama made remarks in the banquet
to the effect that he was not really pro-British. But he had to take
that stand due to the excessive pressure by the imperial envoy. He
was very grateful to their visit to Tibet. He only hoped that the
President would speedily dispatch his plenipotentiary to solve the
outstanding issues. He vowed to them he inclined to the interior and
desired to seek for the common well-being of the five nationalities.
As to the draft Convention of the Simla Conference, it could also be
amended. Shortly before Zhu Xiu and Li Zhonglian's entry to Tibet,
the Dalai Lama also sent Khenpos from the three great monasteries to
station in Beijing. They were well received by the Central
Government. In 1924 the Dalai Lama once again sent Khenpo Kunchok
Jungnas to Beijing as the general representative of the Tibet Office
in Beijing (also the abbot of the Yonghegong Lama Temple). He did a
lot of work in the respect of linking up the relations between Tibet
and the Central Government. The Dalai Lama sent Khenpo Lozang Pasang
from Wutai Mountain to Nanjing to have an audience with ChiangKai
-shek to state his views on Tibetan affairs. He was welcomed by
Chiang Kaishek who sent a letter to the Dalai lama through him. The
letter read that 'Your Holiness just sent your representative Lozang
Pasang coming Nanjing to state all about Tibetan affairs. I have
learned your holiness to take a broad and long-term view and make up
your mind to turn heart and soul to the party and the state. Looking
into the western-most frontiers, I am greatly relieved and assured."
"U-Tsang (the Anterior and Ulterior Tibet) is contiguous to powerful
neighbours and it has long been oppressed by the imperialists.
Fortunately, your holiness are deeply conscious of the righteous
cause and are inclined to the interior with deep affection." The
Dalai Lama henceforth once again sent Kunchok Jungnas and others to
call on Yan Xi-shan, Chairman of the Commission for Mongolian and
Tibetan Affairs. He said in Yan's face that he received the Dalai
Lama's letter and stated three things: "a) The Dalai Lama had no
alliance with Britain. He had to have connections with the British
because of the geographical contiguity; b) The Dalai Lama was
alleged to have hatred for the Hans. That was the result of
misinformation. The thirteenth Dalai Lama has time again sent
officials to the interior of China; c) The Dalai Lama and the
Panchen Erdeni had always had good feelings with each other. The
misunderstanding between them was not the fault of the Dalai Lama,
etc." On September 3,1929 Kunchod Jungnas and others went to the
Commission for Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs and stated Tibetan
affairs, repeating the Dalai Lama's statement. On September 10, 1929
President Chiang Kai-shek received Kunchok Jungnas and his party.
During the meeting, Kunchok Jungnas conveyed the Dalai Lama's
statement to Chiang Kai-shek that is, "no pro-British, no departing
from the Central Government and welcome the Panchen Lama to return
to Tibet." From that time on, the Tibetan local authorities
expressed time and again the desire to treat the Central Government
honestly; all the Tibetan administrative, military and foreign
affairs will be under the management of the Central Government;
resident official in Tibet be dispatched by the Central Government;
and the draft Convention of the Simla Conference might be declared
in future by the Dalai Lama that it should be solved by the Central
Government of China, etc. In 1930 the Dalai Lama agreed to set up
Tibet Offices in Nanjing, Beiping and Xikang (Khams).The same year
the Dalai Lama received special envoy from the Central Government
Liu Manqing at Norbu Lingkha, Lhasa and conveyed some truth in his
mind in his remarks to Liu:What I hope for the most is nothing but
the real peace and real unity in China...? As to the Xikang
incident, he asked the government not to send ruthless and
tyrannical soldiers to increase the sufferings of our Tibetan people
there. Better send an honest and upright official to take over the
areas concerned. I could order troop withdrawal anytime. Since all
the lands belong to the Chinese territory, it is unnecessary to
distinguish yours from mine. If armed confrontation continued, I
could not stop the conflict because the Tibetan troops are famous
for its bravery. Moreover, it is extremely worthless to quarrel
between brothers. He also said: The British did try to entice me,
but I knew I should not forfeit the sovereignty. Since the nature
and habits between the British and us are entirely different and not
tolerable. I dealt with them courteously but without sincerity
whenever they come, However, I have never given them the slightest
right. If only the internal relations are consolidated, the Xikang
(Khams)-Tibet problem would not be difficult to be solved during the
feasts. He urged Liu again and again to surely convey his letter to
Chiang Kai-shek and take notes about what he said after going back
her residence to avoid forgetting. Up to that time, the relations
between Tibet and the Central Government had gradually become
normalized.

2. The Ninth Parched Erdeni's Attitude towards Central Government of
China

In the last years of the Qing Dynasty, the ninth Panchen Erdeni and
the thirteenth Dalai Lama took concerted actions and commonly
resisted the invasion of the British troops. Afterwards, the
contradiction between the Dalai and the Panchen occurred due to the
British instigation. The Panchen Lama fled to the interior of China
in 1923. After reaching the interior, the Panchen Lama was accorded
a grand reception by various circles. The Panchen Office in Nanjing
was set up in 1929. The founding declaration of the Office made a
brilliant exposition with regard to the historical origin of the
relations between Tibet and the Central Govemment as well as the
changes of the Tibetan situation in late Qing and early Republic
period and the policy should be adopted towards Tibetan affairs. It
pointed out that "Tibet originally existed in China. Since the
period of the Han and Tang Dynasties, the relations between Tibet
and China had increasingly become close and intimate. During the
Qing period, officers and men were dispatched to Tibet to defend the
frontier. Considering the ties of history and geography, it is
absolutely impossible for Tibet to separate from China to seek
independence. If China forfeit Tibet, it would be just like a cart
without spoke. Therefore, the relations between Tibet and China are
benefited to both sides when united but hurt to all when split. This
is a matter of course." "The imperialists even more engaged in
economic and cultural aggression against Tibet. On the one hand,
they incited the independence of Tibet... All these troubles were
made by a handful of pro-British faction. Those people not only
destroyed the ties between Tibet and China, but also ignored the
interests of Tibet itself. They acted recklessly and blindly. Both
the God and human being will be angered..." On May 5, 1931 the
Panchen Lama went to Nanjipg to attend the National Conference, at
which he delivered a brief speech. On May 10, 1931 he delivered an
important speech entitled 'Tibet is the territory of China' at the
Third Congress of the Nanjing New Asia Association. The Panchen Lama
Looked back the origins of historical development between Tibet and
China, pointed out that "a)Tibet is the territory of China. If
invaded by the imperialists, it would be not different from one's
door being destroyed by others. In that case, it would hardly avoid
the worries of the teeth without the protection of the lips. (As the
saying goes in China: If the lips are gone, the teeth will be cold.)
b) How to unite the Mongolian and Tibetan nationalities into the
whole Chinese nation? We should devote a lot of time and energy to
carry out these two things, that is, making conceded efforts from
the central government down to the national of the whole country."
The Great Master Panchen had extensively toured the interior of
China for fourteen years and done a great deal of work for
safeguarding the unification of the motherland and strengthening the
unity of the nationalities. The Great Master Panchen passed away at
Yushu (Jyekundo) in December 1937. On his deathbed he still did not
forget the unification of the mothetand, He poured out his head in
his will, saying that "The great aspirations in my life to the
support of the Central Government, to the propagation of Buddhist
culture, to the promotion of the unity of the five nationalities and
to the joint guarantee of the prosperity of the nation. In the last
fifteen years or so, l have extensively toured the interior of
China. I am grateful to the preferential treatment accorded to
me,witnessed the respect to Buddhism and the equal treatment to the
Tibetan nationality by the Central Government. I am greatly consoled
and hence have firmed my conviction... I finally hope our Tibetans,
officials and common people, monks and laymen, to make efforts for
restoring good relations between Tibet and China in the spirit of
national construction by the five lateralities advocated by the
Central Government. The Dzasa Lamas and the various Khenpos should
especially succeed my aspirations well in order to promote their
realization."

After the demise of the thirteenth Dalai Lama, the Tibetan local
government jointly chose Rating (Rwa-sgreng) Hutuktu as the regent
in 1934. The decision was approved and Rating was Conferred upon by
the Nationalist Government, After taking charge of the Tibetan
political and religious affairs, he did a lot of work for
safeguarding the unification of the motherland and opposing the
imperialist aggression. After the outbreak of the Anti-lapanese War,
Rating personally led scripture-chanting ceremonies by the three
great Tibetan monasteries praying for Chinese victory. In 1943 the
Kuomintang held its Sixth Plenary Session. He was elected as an
alternate member of the executive committee of the central committee
of that party, The British imperialists were dissatisfied with
Rating's activities for actively safeguarding the unification of the
motherland. Then they stirred up the pro-British splitting forces to
create 'the Rating Incident" which once again overshadowed the
Tibetan situation.

It is not difficult to see from the above-mentioned facts that after
the Revolution of 1911, the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama as well
as the broad officials, monks and laymen, of the Tibetan local
government were turned heart and souls to the interior of China.
They all supported the unification of the motherland in their
fundamental stands. Although the British imperialist aggressive
forces hatched one plot after another against China in that period,
the relations between Tibet has not separated from the jurisdiction
of the Central Government of China and become "an independent
country."

III. The Proper Handling of the Demise of the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Erdeni
as well as Their Reincarnations and Enthronement by the Central Government of China

During the period of the Republic of China, the demise and
condolence-offering to the thirteenth Dalai Lama and the
reincarnation, enthronement of the fourteenth Dalai Lama as well as
the condolence-offering to the ninth Panchen Erdeni's demise and the
reincarnation, enthronement of the tenth Panchen Erdeni were all the
eye-catching important event in Tibetan affairs. The Central
Government properly handlled all these matters. These demonstrated
that the Central Government effectively exercised sovereign
jurisdiction over Tibet.

1. The Condolence-Offering to the Thirteenth Dalai Lama's Demise and
the Supervision over the Reincarnation, Enthronement of the
Fourteenth Dalai Lama by the Central Governmet of China

The thirteenth Dalai Lama Tubten Gyatso passed away at Lhasa on
December 17, 1933. The Silon and the Kashag telegraphed to the
Central Government care of the Tibet Office in Nanjing on December
20, 1933. The telegram read: "His Holiness the Dalai Lama passed
away at 7:30 p.m. on the 30th in the 12th month by Tibetan calendar.
The affairs in Tibet will temporarily be charged by the Silon and
the Kashag, hoping to keep your minds on your work and submit this
message to the Central Government. Details will be notified by
another telegram." On hearing the sad news, the Central Government
promptly started to prepare for the related commendatory and
comforting affairs. The Nationalist Government issued orders on
December 21, 1933, granting the Dalai the posthumous title of "Great
Master of Patriotism, Magnanimity, Benevolence and Sagacity." All
the commendation ceremonies should be grand and given special
favored treatment, The Executive Yuan should promptly order the
department in charge and the commission concerned to make
arrangements submitting for implementation to express the concern
and solicitude by the party and the state to think of an absent
friend who is far away and commend the virtuous person." The Central
Government sent Deputy Chief of the General Staff Huang Musong as
special envoy to offer condolence on the Dalai's death. He was
responsible for title-granting and condolence activities. Huang
Musong was accorded grand reception when he reached Lhasa. The four
Kalons of the Kashag called on him together, On September 23, 1934,
Huang Musong presided over the title-granting ceremony and paid
homage to the demise of the Dalai Lama in the morning. There were
several hundred of clerical and secular officials from the Silon and
other lower officials who joined the extremely grand ceremony. The
Gyigyab Khenpo received the jade album and jade seal on behalf of
the Dalai Lama. On October 1, 1934, the ceremony of offering
condolence on the Dalai's death was also held in the mousing hall at
the Potala Palace. During his stay at Lhasa, Huang had talks with
the Tibetan local government high-ranking officials many times and
exchanged views concerning the relations between Tibet and the
Central Government. Though the two sides did not reach unanimous
agreement on all matters, yet common consensus was reached on the
question of "Tibet is the Chinese territory". When Huang Musong left
Tibet, Liu Puchen and Chiang Zhiyu were left behind to stay in Tibet
permanently. The relations between the Tibet region and the Central
Government were further strengthened.

After the discovery of the thirteenth Dalai Lama's reincarnate soul
boy, the Tibetan regent Rating Hutuktu sent a telegram to the
Central Government on December 12, 1938, saying that "on the
occasion of lot-drawing from the gold urn ceremony when the three
soul boys arrive at Lhasa, the Central Government should send
representatives to participate in the ceremony so as to make it more
dependable and pleased by the people far and wide." The Central
Government attached great importance to this request. The
Nationalist Government issued an order on December 28, 1938, saying
that "The Chairman of the Commission for Mongolian and Tibetan
Affairs Wu Zhongxin would be sent to preside over the fourteenth
Dalai Lama's reincarnation togather with Rating Hutuktu." Wu
Zhongxin and his party arrived at Lhasa on January 15, 1940 and were
accorded a warm reception. On January 26, 1940, Rating applied for
approval about the exemption of lot-drawing from the gold urn to the
Dalai Lama's reincarnate soul boy Lhamo Dondup. Wu Zhongxin
transmitted the application to the Central Government for approval.
In the meantime, he went to the Norbu Lingkha Park to examine the
soul boy. On January 31, Chiang Kaishek, Chairman of the Executive
Yuan, applied the Nationalist Government for issuing an order to the
effect that Lhamo Dondup was approved to succeed the thirteenth
Dalai as the fourteenth Dalai Lama. On February 5, the Nationalist
Government of China issued an order, saying that "Lhamo Dondup,the
soul boy from Qinghai, is very intelligent and exceptional
extraordinary. It is proved through investigation that he is the
reincarnate of the thirteenth Dalai Lama and should promptly be
exempted from lot-drawing, thereby ratified to succeed as the
fourteenth Dalai Lama." And the Central Government appropriated
400,000 yuan as the expenses for the enthronement ceremony. On the
eve of holding enthronement ceremony, there broke out a tea-cup
storm due to the seating of Wu Zhongxin. The Kashag planned to
arrange the seat of Wu Zhongxin the same as the Silon or Rating. It
was sternly refuted by Wu Zhongxin, stating that he was representing
the Central Government. His seating should follow the old practice
of the Qing Dynasty, namely, to sit side by side with the Dalai Lama
to embody the authority and position of the Central Government. The
Tibetan authorities agreed to act accordingly. During the duration
of his stay in Tibet, Wu Zhongxin decided through consultation with
the Tibetan local government to set up "the Office of the Commission
for Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs in Lhasa". The relations between
Tibet and the Central Government thus furthered, Wu Zhongxin and his
entourage were accorded a grand send-off ceremony by the Tibetan
local-government when they left Lhasa. According to practice the
Tibetan social government sent Ngawang Gyaltsen leaving for
Chongqing soon afterwards to express thanks to the Central
Government as well as to express the strong aspirations of the
Tibetan populace to support the war against Japan and for national
salvation.

2. The Condolence-Offering to the Demise of the Ninth Panchen Erdeni
and the Supervision over the Reincarnation, Enthronement of the
Tenth Panchen Lama by the Central Government

The ninth Panchen passed away at Yushu (Jyekundo), Qinghai Province
on December 1, 1937. The Central Government expressed utmost concern
to the demise of the Panchen Lama. The Central Government issued an
order to grant posthumous title of "great Master of Sagacity,
Infinite Wisdom, Defender of the Nation and Propagation of the
Doctrine" to the late Panchen on December 22, 1937, and sent Dai
Chuanxian, Chairman of the Examination Yuan to offer condolence on
the Panchen's death at Ganze. On February 4, 1941, the Great Master
Panchen's hearse was transported to the Tashilhunpo Monastery. Up to
then the Great Master Panchen's remains could eternally be enshrined
there.

After eight long years' search for the reincarnate soul boy of the
Panchen, Li Zongren, the acting President of the Nationalist
Government issued an order to approve Gongpo Tseten to succeed as
the tenth Panchen Erdeni on June 2, 1949. On August 10, the
Nationalist Government sent Guan Jiyu, Chairman of the Commission
for Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs as the special envoy to supervise
the enthronement ceremony of the tenth Panchen and granted him the
gold seal and gifts. After the enthronement ceremony the tenth
Panchen Erdeni sent a telegram of thanks to Acting President Li
Zongren, saying that "The Panchen Erdenis have received state favors
for generations and the utmost munificence. We are grateful for Your
Excellency's issuing formal decree to approve the succession of the
ninth Panchen's legally constituted authority. We are indebted to
the sending of special envoy Guan Jiyu and deputy special envoy Ma
Bufang to Qinghai to supervise over the enthronement and also
gratefu1 to the title-granting and the generous gifts. After
acknowledging the receipt of the above-mentioned presents, we are
deeply grateful to the Central Government. The enthronement ceremony
was held at the Kumbum Monastery in compliance with the instructions
on August 10, 1949. Henceforth, in the days to come I can only pour
out all my sincerity to the Central Government in the spirit of the
successive Panchens and the consistent will to protect all living
creatures. We are duty-bound to exert all our efforts in the future
so as to repay the boundless virtue and kindness of the central
Government."

It is thus clearly seen from the above-mentioned historical facts
about the Dalai Lamas and the Panchen Lamas that the Tibetan local
government reported all the important Tibetan matters to the Central
Government and dealt with together with the central special
representatives after obtaining the approval of the Central
Government. AIl these fully embodied the effective sovereign
jurisdiction over Tibet by the Central Government. These historical
facts brook no denial and distortion.

IV. The Tibetan Local Authorities Attended a Series of Political Conferences Convened by the Central Government of China

Now let us have a look at what were the relations between Tibet and
the Central Governments during the period of the Republic of China
from sending delegates by the Tibet region to attend the political
conferences convened by successive Central Governments, and see
whether or not Tibet was "an independent country".

In 1913 the parliament was established in Beijing. It worked out the
Executive Law for the Election of Parliament Members for the First
Session of Tibet. Its Article One stipulated that the election of
the senators and the members of the House of Representatives for the
First Session must be carried out at the seat of the Government;
Article Two stipulated that the supervision over the election of
Tibetan members shall be performed by the Chairman of the Bureau for
Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs; Article Three stipulated that
detailed rules and regulations shall be drawn up by the election
supervisors. In accordance with this Law, the list of the following
persons who were elected through election was made public on May 15,
1913. Senators from Anterior Tibet: Dondup Norbu, Tashi Drokar, Wang
Geng, Kalon Shatra, Sun Yuyun; alternate members: Padma Rinchen, Yu
Baoxuan, Sun Jiangdong, Liu Wentong and Li Anlu; Senators from
Ulterior Tibet: Gyaltsen Sampo, Fu Xie, Ngawang Yeshe, Gong
Huanchen, Chen Ke; alternate members: Wang Tse, Ngawang Chosdrak,
Wang Youling, Hu Jun, Gao Luding. The parliament then was stipulated
by the first constitution of the Republic of China, namely, the
Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China, as the organ of
legislation, public opinion and of constitution enactment. It
enjoyed the legislative power, right of constitution enactment,
right of impeachment and the right to vote. The Tibetan
representatives were elected into the supreme power organ ---the
Parliament--- to participate in the state affairs. This fact rightly
demonstrated that Tibet is part of Chinese territory and the Tibetan
people are one of the members of the big family of the Chinese
nation.

For the purposes of strengthening military and financial affairs,
studying the construction plans and organizing the national
representative conference, the interim Power-Holder Duan Qirui of
the Republic of China convened a Rehabilitation Conference on
February 1, 1925. The Dalai Lama, the Panchen Erdeni and the Central
Resident Offcial in Tibet Lu Xingqi were appointed as members of the
Rehabilitation Conference. During the session, they all sent their
representatives, that is, Dondup Wanggyal, Lozang Gyaltsen and Zhu
Qinghua, to attend the Conference. The Great Master Panchen placed
great hope on this Conference. He sent a message to the participants
of the Conference on January 27, 1925, hoping that the various
circles to the Conference "in compliance with public-mindedness will
endeavour to overall planning, benefitting the people and making the
country rich... Because the Conference aimed at the public affairs
of the nation, not the private affairs of one person, one family,
one party faction or one region." During the Conference the Great
Master Panchen also submitted a proposal to the Conference in view
of the domestic situation of tangled warfare among the warlords,
suggesting to put an end to the disaster of war and implement the
Republicanization of the five nationalities.

On August 3, 1925, the constitution-drafting commission was set up.
At the invitation of Duan Qirui, Kunchok Jungnas from the Tibetan
local government and Wang Lejie from the Panchen's Council of
Khenpos took part in the important organ as representatives for
studying and formulating the fundamental law of the country.

The above-mentioned facts are only a few examples of the
participation in the state affairs by the Tibet region together with
the various provinces and regions. There were some other examples,
such as the National Political Conference convened by Yuan Shikai in
December 1913; the Provisional Constitution Conference in March 1914
and the First Session of the Parliament restored after Li Yuanhong
succeeding to the Presidency of the Republic in 1916. AIl these
conferences were participated in by the Tibetan local
representatives.

The foregoing historical facts demonstrate that though at the
initial stage of the Republic the domestic situation was unstable
because of the tangled warfare among the Northern warlords, when the
national conferences with a political nature were convened by no
matter whatsoever central government, Tibet sent its representatives
to participate in all these conferences. This fully demonstrated
that the Tibet region recognized it as one of the members of China.

On June 17, 1929, the Kuomintang (KMT) convened the Second Plenary
Session of the Central Committee of the Third Party Congress in
Nanjing. It adopted a resolution on Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs.
There were altogether six articles, namely, 1) A meeting on
Mongolian and Tibetan affairs would be held, ... Tibet would send
certain number of delegates chosen by the Dalai and the Panchen Lama
as well as the Tibetan people to attend the meeting to be held in
the capital;2) Sending official to go to Mongolia and Tibet
respectively, publicizing the policy of fostering the Mongolian and
Tibetan nationalities formulated by the Central Government and its
determination as well as expressing sympathy and solicitude for the
suffering and hardships of the Mongolian and Tibetan people and
conducting investigations; 3) A school for Mongolians and Tibetans
would be set up in the capital, Fine youngsters would be selected
and enrolled into the school after passing the examination by
Mongolian and Tibetan areas; 4) Concerning the rejuvenation of
Mongolian and Tibetan economy and culture, it should be started with
by taking measures of developing education; 5) The Commission for
Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs should actively plan and carry out the
above-mentioned projects in accordance with the administrative
programme and its implementation procedures; 6) Speeding up the
publicity toward Mongolia and Tibet, expounding that the Mongolian
and Tibetan nationalities were part of the whole Chinese nation;
explaining the danger of the situation in which the Mongolian and
Tibetan nationalities were located; the sinister schemes designed by
the imperialists; and that the educational institutions, economic
facilities, the construction of communications and industries in the
Mongolian and Tibetan areas should be implemented by the local
government assisted by the Central Government; only the military and
foreign affairs as well as the state administration had to be
centralized into the hand of the Central Government ... etc. In line
with this resolution the Nationalist Government convened the meeting
on Mongolian and Tibetan affairs in 1930. The Resident Official in
Tibet Mr. Lu Xingqi then was instructed to send letters to the Dalai
Lama and the Kashag for sending officials to attend the meeting. The
Kashag promptly replied: "The Han nationality and the minority
nationalities have always been of one family, ... Tibetan
nationality being one of the five nationalities, the Tibetans have a
relation just like the lips and the teeth with the Han nationality,
sharing weal and woe, There should not have any reason of separation
from each other." The Dalai Lama also expressed clearly in his
reply: "In compliance with your invitation l instantly sent Dzasa of
the Yonghegong Monastery and the Tibetan Affairs Office Khenpo
Dronyer Lozangwa to attend the meeting. In addition, I would send
Dronyer from Shangshan Ngawang Gyaltsen and Tsedrung Chophel Tubten
to attend the meeting from Tibet together with them. They would set
out within the next few days..."

The Nationalist Government convoked the National Conference in 1931.
There were six delegates from the Anterior Tibet (u), including
Kunchok Jungnas, Chophel Tubten and others; four delegates from the
Ulterior Tibet (Tsang), including Lozang Tsultrim, Lozang Gyaltsen
and others, In addition, there were eight persons, including
Tsultrim Nyima, attended the conference as the nonvoting delegates.
The ninth Panchen not only personally attended the conference, but
also delivered a complimentary speech to the conference, saying that
"Acting on the behest of the late Premier, the National Conference
was convoked, in which the outstanding delegates could be consulted
carefully, the provisional constitution could be formulated to
consolidate the foundation of the nation. The Provisional
Constitution during the Period of Political Tutelage of the Republic
of China worked out by the Conference was a fundamental law which
was similar to the constitution. The Provisional Constitution
stipulated: The territory of China is the various provinces,
Mongolia and Tibet. The conference also decided that in view of the
difference of languages between the Mongolian and the Tibet regions
and the interior of China, the Nationalist Government should
consider the local conditions and properly work out measures
according to the educational policy enacted in line with the
Provisional Constitution to ensure the speedy development to the
culture of Mongolia and Tibet.

Before the convocation of the conference, a dispute arose between
the delegates of U-Tsang because of the number of quorum. The
delegates from the udemanded that the Tibetan delegates should all
be chosen by the Dalai Lama; while the delegates from the Tsang
demanded that the Tibetan delegates should equally be distributed
according to the usual practice of the successive conferences. It is
thus clear that both the Dalai and the Panchen all wanted to support
the Central Government.

In November 1931, the Chinese Kuomintang held its Fourth National
Congress in Nanjing. The participants to the Congress from the Tibet
region were: Lozang Gyaltsen, Kunchok Jungnas, Liu Manqing, Ngawang
Gyaltsen, Kelzang Tsering and others. Kunchok Jungian and Lozang
Gyaltsen were elected at the Congress as members of the Executive
Committee of the Central Committee of the KMT. Afterwards, when the
Fifth National Congress of Kuomintang was convened, the Tibet region
also sent its delegates to attend that Congress.

On April 7, 1932, the Executive Yuan convened the National Calamity
Conference, The Tibetan local delegates attended the conference were
Kunchok Jungnas, Lozang Gyaltsen, Liu Jiaju and Liu Manning. During
the conference the Tibetan delegates put forward a proposal
concerning improving the military, political, religious and
educational affairs of Mongolia and Tibet to resist foreign
aggression, We can see the sense of responsibility and crisis of the
delegates as the masters of the nation towards the national destiny.
On January 21, 1932, the Tibet Office representatives in Nanjing
Kunchok Jungnas, Ngawang Gyaltsen and others jointly submitted a
report to the Nationalist Government, the Executive Yuan and the
Commission for Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs, transmitting the Dalai
Lama's opinion concerning the method of producing Tibetan delegates.
The report said that in the period of national calamity, the Central
Government should concentrate the opinions of the people of the
whole country to make them into a whole. The production Of the
Tibetan delegates should be elected freely by the local people so as
to express to the fullest the patriotic opining of the Tibetan
people. That was the power of the Tibet region and also the
obligation towards the nation.

In March 1938, the Kuomintang Provisional National Congress adopted
a resolution on the organizing of the People's Political Council.
Article 3, Item B of the organizational regulation of the Council
stipulated that "The number of the Tibetan local delegates was two
persons; the recommendation of its candidates must be in accordance
with the stipulations of the regulation's Articles 2, 3 and 4, They
should be produced doubly according to the number of delegates: man
or woman, reached the age of 30 with the nationality of China,
served in Tibetan local organs, public or private, or other groups,
famous and familiar with the political and social conditions at the
localities, trustworthy and prestigious for a long time." Article 12
of the regulation stipulated that "The officials at their posts
should not become the senators." Through election the Nationalist
Government made public the name list of the First People's Political
Council on June 16, 1938, Sherab Gyatso and Tenzin Gyalpo from the
Tibet region were elected. On July 5, the First Session of the
People's Political Council was formally held, at which the proposal
on supporting the Nationalist Government to carry out the Programme
of National Reconstruction was adopted. Sherab Gyatso and others
handed in a proposal to the Second Congress of the First Session
concerning uniting with the will of the border inhabitants to
enhance the strength of resistance against Japan. After the ending
of the meeting, the Anti-Japanese raging tide of the people of all
nationalities of the country was further on the rise. The Tibetan
people also rose to contribute money, donate goods and organize
various Anti-Japanese groups going to the front to comfort the
Anti-Japanese commanders and soldiers. The Tibetan regent Rating
Hutuktu also sent a telegram to Chiang Kai-shek on July 1 , 1939,
expressing his support to the Anti-Japanese far, saying that "we
would hold sutra-chanting service to the victory of our army and
curse to the prompt defeat of the Japanese robbers, continuing to
the final triumph of our country." The three great monasteries of
Lhasa held a meeting at the Drepung Monastery. The meeting passed a
public report to the Nationalist Government, expressing that "Now we
must drive the enemy out of the Chinese territory and the five
nationalities must be of one heart. For the country, those who have
money give money; those who have no money defend the land with their
own bodies. It is urgent for all circles to cope with the tyrannical
Japanese, hoping to exterminate the Japanese militarism. It was over
one year that the three great monasteries of Lhasa had been praying
days and nights without interruption for the victory of the country
since the Lugouqiao Bridge Incident." The Panchen's Council of
Khenpos sent a telegram to the Chairman of the Commission for
Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs, saying that "Due to the tyranny of
the Japanese aggressors, the whole country shared a bitter hatred to
the enemy. Under the influence of justice, we would certainly win
the victory. We would support the Central Government in line with
the unfulfilled wish of the late Great Master, unite the border
people, stabilize the rear, relieve the cares to the western border,
and try our best to benefit the War of Resistance against Japan."
The foregoing historical facts demonstrate that in the period of
Anti-Japanese War, confronting the national calamity, the Tibetan
people acted and manifested just like the other nationalities of the
country, warmly loved their own country and hated the common enemy.
They were by no means considering themselves as the people of
another country.

On November 15, 1946 the Nationalist Government convened the
National Assembly for the preparations of constitutional government.
The Tibetan local government and the Panchen's Council of Khenpos
sent their delegates to participate in the Assembly. There were
altogether 10 delegates from the Tibet region. They were: Tubten
Samphel, Sonam Wangdui, Tubten Sampu, Tsewang Dondup, Tubten
Trinley, Tubten Tsedan, Tubten Sengye, Jampa Ngawang, Yeshe Dargye,
Dorji Ngodup and so on; the delegates from the Panchen's Council of
Khenpos were: Tenjin Gyaltsen, Ji Jigme, Lamin Yeshe Trultrim,
Tsering Dondup, Ho Badon, Song Zhishu and others. Tubten Samphel,
the delegate from the Tibet region was elected the member of the
Presidium. Article 6 of the General Rules of the Organization of the
Assembly's Credentials Committee stipulated: "The conveners of the
various Examination Committees of the Draft Constitution should be
composed of 5 to 9 persons, who would be appointed from among the
members of the Examination Committees of the Presidium." In line wlh
this, the Tibetan delegates took part in the work of various
Examination Committees respectively.

Article 120 of the Constitution of the Republic of China formulated
by the Assembly stipulated that the Tibetan autonomous system should
be guaranteed. Article 168 of the Constitution stipulated that the
status of the various nationalities in the border regions should be
legally guaranteed by the state. Its regional autonomy should
specially be fostered.

During the session Chiang Kai-shek and his wife gave a dinner in
honor of the entire Tibetan delegates at the official residence on
November 28, 1946; Gyalo Thondup (the Dalai's brother), Qi Jihui
(the Dalai's elder sister), Dorji Nyima (Qi's husband), Wu Zhongxin,
Chiang Jinkuo and others were also present at the dinner, The
above-mentioned Dalai's relatives then were in Nanjing.

On March 29, 1948, the National Assembly for constitutional
government was held. There were thirteen delegates sept by the
Tibetan local government to attend the Assembly. They were:Tubten
Samphel, Tubten Tsedun, Jampa Ngawang, Dampa Phuntsok, Tenzin
Tangye, Jampa Tashi, Laixi Gyatso, Sonam Wangdui, Paljor Trimley,
Kongpo Tsering, Geten Pempa, Khedrub Tamdan and Sengye Dargyas.
There were eleven delegates sent by the Panchen's Council of Khenpos
to attend the Assembly, They were: Tenzin Gyaltsen, Lamin Yeshe
Tsultrim, Ji Jigme, Song Zhishu, Lozang Sherab, Lo Tubten, Gao
Lozang, Lozang, Ming Toeing, Dampa, and Ji Lo Xiuying. Tubten
Samphel from the Tibetan local government was elected as the member
of the Presidium. There were three legislators from the Tibet
region, namely, Tubten Zangpo, Jampa Ngawang and Tenzin Damchok;
three controllers: Tubten Tsedun, Jampa Tashi and Dampa Phuntsok;
there were five legislators from the Panchen's Council of Khenpos,
namely, Ji Jigme, Tsering Dondup, Tubten Nyima, Lozang Gyaltsen and
Ngawang Jinpa; three controllers: Lamin Yeshe Tsultrim, Ji Yujie and
Ho Badon, Lozang Gyaltsen was also invited as a member to the
National Policy Advisory Committee by the Presidential Palace.

Judging from the above-mentioned historical facts, it is absolutely
impossible for anyone to reach the conclusion that Tibet was "an
independent country". We would like to ask: how could the highest
organ of power of a sovereign state admit foreigners as its MPs? How
could the highest organs of legislation and control of a sovereign
state permit foreigners to exercise such a lofty power ?

V. The Establishment of the Bureau of Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs (Renamed as the Yuan for Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs) and the
Commission for Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs by the Central Government to Strengthen the Administration over the Tibet Region

After the founding of the Republic of China, it had strengthened the
administration over Tibet on the basis of the established practices
of the Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties and also specially set up the
corresponding government organs of administration over Tibet. On
July 19, 1912, the Central Government decided to set up the Bureau
for Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs (renamed later as the Yuan for
Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs). It was clearly stipulated that the
Bureau was directly under the leadership of the Premier. All the
matters relevant to the Mongolian and the Tibet regions should be
handled by the Bureau (or Yuan) or transmitted to the Premier for
making final decisions.

After the founding of the Nationalist Government in Nanjing, the
Commission for Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs was set up to take
charge of the administrative affairs in the Mongolian and the Tibet
regions as well as the other ethnic areas in 1929 so as to further
strengthen the administration over the Tibet region.

After the founding of the Commission for Mongolian and Tibetan
Affairs, it handled the matters of establishing three Tibetan
Affairs offices in Nanjing, Beiping and Xikang(Khams) and of
appropriating expenses for them submitted by the general
representative of Tibet in Nanjing Kunchok Jungnas in 1930. The
Commission also examined and approved the selection of the
directors, deputy directors of the three Offices as well as the
proposed organizational outlines of the Offices. Afterwards, in view
of the Tibet regional conditions, the Commission formulated three
statutes successively:

On January 8, 1934, the Commission made public the Measures on the
Respects-paying to the Central Government by the Representatives of
the Dalai and the Panchen. There were seven articles in the
Measures. It stipulated that the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Erdeni
should in turn send a representative to Nanjing to report the
situation of administration of Tibet every year. The representative
should bring with him the certificate of appointment and rank or
title as well as his curriculum vitae to report for duty to the
Commission at the designated date every year. It also stipulated in
explicit terms that the representative would pay homage to Dr. Sun
Yat-sen's Mausoleum, call on the Chairman of the Executive Yuan,
have an audience with the President of the Nationalist Government,
report the border administration to the Central Government. The
Central Government would announce the administrative policy and
other matters.

On February 10, 1936, the Measures on Rewards and Punishments for
the Lamas were published. There were twenty-five articles in it. The
requirements and the ranks of promotion for the rewarded or punished
Lamas were all specifically stipulated.

On September 24, 1938, the Commission issued the Measures on the
Reincarnation of the Lamas. There were thirteen articles in total.
It clearly stipulated that the reincarnation of the Dalai Lamas, the
Panchen Erdenis, Jetsun Dampa Hutuktus and the reincarnation of the
Hutuktus, Nomihans and Panditas in various places ager their demise
should be reported to the highest administrative organ in the
locality and transmit to the Commission for the record. After the
discovery of the reincarnate soul boy, it should first report to the
highest administrative organ in the locality and then convey it to
the Commission for investigation and check, then conducting
lot-drawing respectively... etc.

In addition, the demise of the thirteenth Dalai Lama, the ninth
Panchen Lama and paying religious tribute and offering condolences
to them; the search for the reincarnate soul boys; the enthronement
and title-granting to the Dalai Lama, the Panchen Erdeni and other
high-rankiqg monk officials; the examination and approval of Rating
and Takdra as Tibetan regents as well as the appointment, removal
arid rewards to the Tibetan officials, clerical and secular, etc.,
all the above-mentioned matters were specifically held responsible
for and handled by the Commission for Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs.

Since the founding of the Commission for Mongolian and Tibetan
Affairs up to 1949, it had all along carried out its duty. The
contact and connections with the Commission for Mongolian and
Tibetan Affairs had never interrupted relating to the affairs
between the Tibetan local government and the Central Government. It
may be asked that if Tibet were "an independent country" at that
time, then, how were the expenses of any country's diplomatic organs
on earth obliged to apply for appropriation and borne by the
resident country? Moreover, according to international practice, the
inter-state affairs were represented and handled usually through
diplomatic channels, but the important matters of the Tibet region
were handled through the Commission for Mongolian and Tibetan
Affairs, not by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Was that the
acceptable normal way to carry on contacts between "an independent
country" and another sovereign state?

Past events remain fresh in people's memory, Just as Francis Bacon,
the British philosopher in the sixteenth century, said: "Histories
make men wise," as we look back the values contained in the
above-mentioned historical facts, we are convinced that through the
review of the above-mentioned historical facts, the readers would be
able to reach new consensus with us; that is, with the lapse of
history, the close ties and the compatriotic affection between the
Tibet region and the Central Government as well as the Tibetan
people and the people in the interior of the motherland established
for several hundred years could only be the longer, the stronger and
the more consolidated. They could by no means be suddenly severed by
the development of certain historical event or the outbreak of
social transformations, even to the extent of all gone, nothing
left.